Presentation groups

Klausur preview (1)

What does ‘foreign fighter’ mean? Who becomes a foreign fighter? How can ‘home’ countries deal with returning foreign fighters?

Klausur preview (1)

What does ‘foreign fighter’ mean? Who becomes a foreign fighter? How can ‘home’ countries deal with returning foreign fighters?

Foreign fighters are individuals who travel to a conflict zone from another territory. In other words, foreign fighters are individuals who engage [remember, about behaviours] in violent activity, which also suggests they have radicalised [remember, about attitudes] to some extent. Home countries have a variety of options for dealing with returning foreign fighters …

Klausur preview (2)

What does ‘foreign fighter’ mean? Who becomes a foreign fighter? How can ‘home’ countries deal with returning foreign fighters?

Klausur preview (2)

What does ‘foreign fighter’ mean? Who becomes a foreign fighter? How can ‘home’ countries deal with returning foreign fighters?

Foreign fighters travel to engage in violent conflict. They might do so for ideological reasons (including religious motivations), for material benefit, or because of connection to others who travel to the conflict zone (network/interpersonal causes). The extent of radicalisation underlying these reasons for becoming a foreign fighter vary, but the engagement in violence is clear. Given the fighters’ engagement in violence and possible criminal consequences of their activities, home countries face a challenge of how to deal with their return. Broadly, state authorities might praise returning foreign fighters, ignore/disregard, refer to intervention programmes, arrest and/or prosecute, or even take measures to prevent their return (e.g., revoke citizenship) …

Klausur preview (3)

What does ‘foreign fighter’ mean? Who becomes a foreign fighter? How can ‘home’ countries deal with returning foreign fighters?

Klausur preview (4)

What does ‘foreign fighter’ mean? Who becomes a foreign fighter? How can ‘home’ countries deal with returning foreign fighters?

Klausur preview (4)

What does ‘foreign fighter’ mean? Who becomes a foreign fighter? How can ‘home’ countries deal with returning foreign fighters?

The existence of foreign fighters is a longstanding and common form of political violence. Their motivations and characteristics may vary, but by definition they all engage in violence. Their exposure to and engagement in violence can pose threats to their home state and society when they return from conflict zones. States therefore may respond in several ways to minimise the danger of fighters acting violent upon their return.

Basic, intuitive definition of strategy

strategy refers to the approach of an actor(s) to achieve their (political) objectives—connecting actions to goals (means to an end)

Elements of strategy

• informative element: objective(s) (why): what are the actor(s) goals? minimalist vs. maximalist objectives

Elements of strategy

• informative element: objective(s) (why): what are the actor(s) goals? minimalist vs. maximalist objectives
• target (what/who) - what entity is being acted upon?
• tactics (how) - types of collective action and their form
• site/venue (where) - what place or what forum type is action taken?
• timing (when) - when are tactics employed against targets

Drivers of strategy selection

• strategy is be a product of (rational) choice

BUT…

An example from the news…

Tagesschau
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=eT9nr9_em0k&pp=ygUebGFzdCBnZW5lcmF0aW9uIHByb3Rlc3QgYmVybGlu

An example from ‘the 43 Group’

An example from ‘the 43 Group’

post-war Labour government, witnessing low-level fascist-party organising and agitation…

Beckman (2013):

On Tuesday May 21st [1946], [James] Chuter Ede, the Home Secretary, received a deputation from the JDC [Jewish Defence Committee, part of the Board of Deputies of British Jews] led by the Chairman, Gordon Liverman … They listened to the deputation and said they would consider all the points raised, but nothing tangible happened.

documentary about 43 Group: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=oBusQBSCAHY

md`## Poll results (Respondents: ${respondentCount})`

import { liveGoogleSheet } from "@jimjamslam/live-google-sheet";
import { aq, op } from "@uwdata/arquero";

// UPDATE THE LINK FOR A NEW POLL
surveyResults = liveGoogleSheet(
  "https://docs.google.com/spreadsheets/d/e/" +
    "2PACX-1vR_AWq1VK8f0CuelA36QMeOJtwhfuUTQ83J_aDc0mNLGHf7dDSW_avWQcZ2GDd4dY9E39kQ__f15mHe/" +
    "pub?gid=962363123&single=true&output=csv",
  10000, 1, 5); // adjust the last number to select all relevant columns 

respondentCount = surveyResults.length;

most important factor shaping the strategy of a (possibly) politically violent group?

shapingCounts = aq.from(surveyResults)
  .select("shaping")
  .groupby("shaping")
  .count()
  .derive({ measure: d => "" })

// Calculate the maximum count from your dataset
shaping_maxCountRE = Math.max(...shapingCounts.objects().map(d => d.count));

plot_shaping = Plot.plot({
  marks: [
    Plot.barY(shapingCounts, {
      x: "shaping",
      y: "count",
      fill: "shaping",
      stroke: "black",
      strokeWidth: 1
    }),
    Plot.ruleY([respondentCount], { stroke: "#ffffff99" })
  ],
  color: {
    domain: [
      "ideology",
      "resources",
      "state posture/character",
      "public support",
      "other"
    ],
    range: [
      "goldenrod",
      "cadetblue",
      "darkorange",
      "forestgreen",
      "violet"
    ]
  },
  marginBottom: 400,
  x: { label: "", tickSize: 2, tickRotate: -40, padding: 0.2,
    domain: ["ideology", "resources", "state posture/character", "public support", "other"]
  },  
  y: {
    label: "",
    tickSize: 10,
    tickFormat: d => d,
    tickValues: Array.from(
      new Set(shapingCounts.objects().map(d => d.count))
    ).sort((a, b) => a - b),
    domain: [0, shaping_maxCountRE]
  },
  facet: { data: shapingCounts, x: "measure", label: "" },
  marginLeft: 60,
  style: {
    width: 1600,
    height: 500,
    fontSize: 40,
  },
});

Poll results

max_goalsCounts = aq.from(surveyResults)
  .select("max_goals")
  .groupby("max_goals")
  .count()
  .derive({ measure: d => "" })

// Calculate the maximum count from your dataset
max_goals_maxCountRE = Math.max(...max_goalsCounts.objects().map(d => d.count));

plot_max_goals = Plot.plot({
  marks: [
    Plot.barY(max_goalsCounts, {
      x: "max_goals",
      y: "count",
      fill: "max_goals",
      stroke: "black",
      strokeWidth: 1
    }),
    Plot.ruleY([respondentCount], { stroke: "#ffffff99" })
  ],
  color: {
    domain: [
      "Yes",
      "No",
      "Maybe"
    ],
    range: [
      "forestgreen",
      "darkred",
      "goldenrod"
    ]
  },
  marginBottom: 80,
  x: { label: "", tickSize: 2, tickRotate: -1, padding: 0.2,
    domain: ["Yes", "No", "Maybe"]
  },  
  y: {
    label: "",
    tickSize: 10,
    tickFormat: d => d,
    tickValues: Array.from(
      new Set(max_goalsCounts.objects().map(d => d.count))
    ).sort((a, b) => a - b),
    domain: [0, max_goals_maxCountRE]
  },
  facet: { data: max_goalsCounts, x: "measure", label: "" },
  marginLeft: 60,
  style: {
    width: 1600,
    height: 500,
    fontSize: 40,
  },
});

pop_supportCounts = aq.from(surveyResults)
  .select("pop_support")
  .groupby("pop_support")
  .count()
  .derive({ measure: d => "" })

// Calculate the maximum count from your dataset
pop_support_maxCountRE = Math.max(...pop_supportCounts.objects().map(d => d.count));

plot_pop_support = Plot.plot({
  marks: [
    Plot.barY(pop_supportCounts, {
      x: "pop_support",
      y: "count",
      fill: "pop_support",
      stroke: "black",
      strokeWidth: 1
    }),
    Plot.ruleY([respondentCount], { stroke: "#ffffff99" })
  ],
  color: {
    domain: [
      "Yes",
      "No",
      "Maybe"
    ],
    range: [
      "forestgreen",
      "darkred",
      "goldenrod"
    ]
  },
  marginBottom: 80,
  x: { label: "", tickSize: 2, tickRotate: -1, padding: 0.2,
    domain: ["Yes", "No", "Maybe"]
  },  
  y: {
    label: "",
    tickSize: 10,
    tickFormat: d => d,
    tickValues: Array.from(
      new Set(pop_supportCounts.objects().map(d => d.count))
    ).sort((a, b) => a - b),
    domain: [0, pop_support_maxCountRE]
  },
  facet: { data: pop_supportCounts, x: "measure", label: "" },
  marginLeft: 60,
  style: {
    width: 1600,
    height: 500,
    fontSize: 40,
  },
});

‘maximalist’ goals and concomitant strategies

Piven and Cloward (1979, xxi–xxii)

… by endeavoring to do what they cannot do, organizers fail to do what they can do… all too often, when workers erupted in strikes, organizers collected dues cards; when tenants refused to pay rent and stood off marshals, organizers formed building committees; when people were burning and looting, organizers used that ‘moment of madness’ to draft constitutions.

Poll results: possible strategic advantage of violence?

advantageCounts = aq.from(surveyResults)
  .select("advantage")
  .groupby("advantage")
  .count()
  .derive({ measure: d => "" })

// Calculate the maximum count from your dataset
advantage_maxCountRE = Math.max(...advantageCounts.objects().map(d => d.count));

plot_advantage = Plot.plot({
  marks: [
    Plot.barY(advantageCounts, {
      x: "advantage",
      y: "count",
      fill: "advantage",
      stroke: "black",
      strokeWidth: 1
    }),
    Plot.ruleY([respondentCount], { stroke: "#ffffff99" })
  ],
  color: {
    domain: [
      "coerce policy change",
      "destroy symbols",
      "gain attention",
      "provoke (over-)reaction",
      "signal strength",
      "other"
    ],
    range: [
      "blue",
      "red",
      "forestgreen",
      "darkorange",
      "indigo",
      "gray"
    ]
  },
  marginBottom: 400,
  x: { label: "", tickSize: 2, tickRotate: -40, padding: 0.2,
    domain: ["coerce policy change", "destroy symbols", "gain attention", "provoke (over-)reaction", "signal strength", "other"]
  },  
  y: {
    label: "",
    tickSize: 10,
    tickFormat: d => d,
    tickValues: Array.from(
      new Set(advantageCounts.objects().map(d => d.count))
    ).sort((a, b) => a - b),
    domain: [0, advantage_maxCountRE]
  },
  facet: { data: advantageCounts, x: "measure", label: "" },
  marginLeft: 60,
  style: {
    width: 1600,
    height: 500,
    fontSize: 40,
  },
});

Points for consideration

• Higher institutionalisation discourages the use of violence (Caiani and Borri 2012, 14)
  • the case of FARC argues against this hypothesis
    • FARC was disciplined and had stringent rules, decided on an overall strategy through organisational conferences and they were resource-rich - i.e., a high degree of institutionalisation
  • there is no straightforward deterministic relationship between institutionalisation and (violent) strategy selection
• FARC violence used strategically and not randomly … more likely to be exercised when it can be legitimised, but also that the members adhered to this strategy. How and why does FARC manage to maintain this discipline? - Possible explanations?

ETA (Lafaye and Brochard 2022)

• justifying new data collection (critiquing Sánchez-Cuenca 2009)
  • all encompassing, ‘blanketing’ data collection (Hutter 2014)
  • focusing on actions rather than victims

Peaks of ETA’s armed offensive (Lafaye and Brochard 2022)

ETA - strategic use of violence

• intense post-truce actions
• ahead of negotiations
• during elections

ETA (Lafaye and Brochard 2022, 2471)

ETA endeavoured to take its place on the public scene, as a political player. It did this in various ways: either by increasing the intensity of its actions after a truce had been broken, or to influence the “balance of the dialogue” before negotiations; or during elections, when democratic structures were just beginning to be established in Spain, i.e. in the 1970s, and in the early 2000s, or when political negotiations were being held in civil society so that they could influence the search for a solution to the conflict.

Selecting (and maintaining) nonviolence (Mironova and Whitt 2022)

• those who experienced “abuse at the hands of government forces are more likely to justify violence in response to government provocation.”
  • BUT “socializing effects of nonviolent activism” builds self-discipline and restraint
  • “we also find that identity and associational cleavages and divisions within a movement need not undermine protest commitment and dedication to non-violence.”
• … “Saunders et al. (2012) who urge scholars ‘to avoid treating protesters as a homogenous group’ (p. 263), distinguishing instead among novices, returners, repeaters, and stalwarts.”

Maintaining nonviolence (cf. Mironova and Whitt 2022)

Any ideas what’s going on here?

Maintaining nonviolence (cf. Mironova and Whitt 2022)

Woolworth’s lunch counter. Seated activists: John Salter, Joan Trumpauer, and Anne Moody.

A final discussion point